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Kalinga-Southeast Asia Maritime Trade: Comprehensive Research

Compiled: 2026-03-27 Purpose: Factual, source-cited research on archaeological, textual, linguistic, and material evidence of maritime trade between ancient Kalinga (Odisha) and Southeast Asia. Confidence note: Where claims rest on scholarly consensus, I note that. Where claims are contested or based on limited evidence, I flag it. Some popular narratives about Kalinga maritime history exceed the archaeological evidence; I distinguish between what is well-established and what remains speculative.

1. Archaeological Evidence

1.1 Rouletted Ware Distribution

What it is: Rouletted ware is a distinctive type of fine pottery from India’s Early Historic period (c. 500 BCE to c. 200 CE), characterized by concentric bands of rouletted (toothed-wheel) impressions on the interior base. Its distribution across the Indian Ocean littoral is one of the strongest material markers of early maritime trade networks.

Key sites in Odisha:

  • Sisupalgarh (near Bhubaneswar): Rouletted ware recovered from excavations. The site, occupied from the 7th-6th centuries BCE to the 3rd-4th century CE, is identified with Kalinganagara (capital of Kalinga post-Maurya) and possibly Tosali (Ashokan provincial capital). B.B. Lal first excavated in 1948; Monica L. Smith and R. Mohanty conducted systematic excavations 2005-2009. C14 dates: earliest occupation inside the city 804-669 BCE, outside 793-555 BCE; northern rampart dated 510-400 BCE. [Smith & Mohanty, “Archaeology at Sisupalgarh,” published through UCLA/Deccan College]
  • Manikapatna (Chilika Lake coast, Puri district): OIMSEAS (Odishan Institute of Maritime and Southeast Asian Studies) trial excavations 1989-1993. Rouletted ware, Knobbed ware, amphora fragments recovered. Deccan College re-excavated in 2010. [Tripati et al., multiple publications in Current Science and Scientific Reports]
  • Tamluk/Tamralipti (now in West Bengal, historically part of the Kalinga trading network): Rouletted ware well attested.

Southeast Asian sites with rouletted ware:

  • Sembiran and Pacung, Bali, Indonesia: 72 fine-fabric rouletted sherds from Sembiran, 1 coarse rouletted sherd from Pacung, and 6 stamped bowl sherds from Sembiran found in excavations 1987-1989. New excavations produced analytical data from pottery, glass, bronze, gold, and semi-precious stone, suggesting links with the Indian subcontinent from the late first millennium BCE — approximately 200 years earlier than previously estimated. [Calo et al., “Sembiran and Pacung on the north coast of Bali: a strategic crossroads for early trans-Asiatic exchange,” Antiquity, Cambridge University Press]
  • Arikamedu (Tamil Nadu, India): Major reference site for rouletted ware, first excavated by Mortimer Wheeler (1945). X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD) and neutron activation analysis (NAA) on samples from Sembiran, Kantarodai (Sri Lanka), and Arikamedu showed all rouletted ware came from the same production source region. [Begley, “Rouletted Ware at Arikamedu: A New Approach”]
  • Tra Kieu, Vietnam: Rouletted ware recovered, indicating links to Indian maritime trade.
  • Beikthano, Burma (Myanmar): Rouletted ware present.
  • Bukit Tengko Lembu, Malaysia: Rouletted ware fragments.
  • Kobak Kendal, Indonesia: Rouletted ware identified.
  • Berenike, Egypt: Rouletted ware found, interpreted as personal possessions of Indian merchants or sailors.

Scholarly reference: Ford et al., “Revisiting Indian Rouletted Ware and the impact of Indian Ocean trade in Early Historic south Asia,” Antiquity, Cambridge University Press. Also: Schenk, “Indian Rouletted Ware and Associated Ceramics in the Early Historic Cultural Exchange Networks of the Indian Ocean.”

Reliability assessment: The distribution of rouletted ware is among the best-established material evidence for early maritime trade across the Bay of Bengal and Indian Ocean. The geochemical sourcing evidence (NAA/XRD) is strong. What remains debated is whether the ware traveled with merchants, was itself a trade item, or accompanied other commodities.

1.2 Bead Trade

Carnelian and agate beads are widely distributed across Southeast Asian archaeological sites from the Iron Age (c. 500 BCE-500 CE). India — particularly Gujarat (Khambhat/Cambay) and the Deccan — was the primary manufacturing center.

Evidence:

  • Geochemical analysis (LA-ICP-MS: laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry) on agate and carnelian beads from Iron Age Cambodia and Thailand showed many were produced from raw material derived from the Deccan Traps of India. [Carter, “Geologic provenience analysis of agate and carnelian beads,” Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 2016]
  • Beads (terracotta, agate, soft stone, and bone) were recovered from Manikapatna excavations alongside iron implements (harpoons, spearheads, sickles, fish hooks, boat nails), iron slags, and bangles in terracotta, faience, glass, and conch shell.
  • A distribution pattern of Indic beads shows that long-distance exchange networks crossing the Bay of Bengal penetrated deep into Southeast Asia in the period 500-1 BCE. [Bellina, “Beads, social change and interaction between India and South-east Asia,” Academia.edu]

Caveat: While Odisha was part of the broader Indian bead trade network, the specific role of Kalingan bead production (as distinct from Gujarat’s dominant Khambhat industry) needs more archaeological work to isolate.

1.3 Coin Finds

Coins recovered from Manikapatna excavations linking Kalinga to diverse maritime regions:

  • Puri-Kushana coins (1st century CE) — indicating Kushana-period trade connections
  • Rajaraja Chola coins (985-1016 CE) — evidencing Chola-era commerce
  • Sahassamalla coins from the Polonnaruva period, Sri Lanka — demonstrating Sri Lankan trade links
  • Chinese coins (14th century CE) — confirming China trade
  • Kharosthi inscription on a potsherd — palaeographically significant, indicating northwest Indian or Central Asian contact
  • An inscribed pendant with “Sadabhu Tisha,” palaeographically dated to the Mauryan period (3rd century BCE)

Source: OIMSEAS excavation reports, 1989-1993; Deccan College excavation 2010.

1.4 Shipwreck Evidence

Direct shipwreck evidence specifically from the Kalinga coast is limited. However:

  • Godavaya shipwreck (off Sri Lanka’s southern coast, depth ~33 meters): Dated 2nd century BCE to 1st century CE. Cargo included iron ingots, glass ingots, stone querns, and ceramic bowls — all from India. This is one of the oldest shipwrecks discovered in the Indian Ocean and demonstrates the material reality of India-Sri Lanka maritime trade during the period Kalinga was active. [INA/University of Southampton excavations]
  • More than 100 shipwreck sites have been reported across the Bay of Bengal since 1974, with 4-5 new sites discovered annually, though most date to later periods. [Various underwater archaeology sources]
  • Indo-Arabian stone anchor at Manikapatna: A broken stone anchor of medieval period was discovered along the Manikapatna coast. Geochemical provenance analysis (petrographic, major/trace element, Sr-Nd isotopic) determined the anchor rock was sourced from a basalt lava flow of the Deccan Traps at Palitana in Saurashtra, Gujarat — demonstrating maritime connections between Gujarat and Odisha’s coast. [Tripati et al., “Geochemical provenance of an Indo-Arabian stone anchor from Manikapatna,” Scientific Reports (Nature), 2022]

Honesty note: There is no confirmed ancient shipwreck specifically attributed to Kalingan vessels. The stone anchor find is medieval, not ancient. The shipwreck evidence supports Indian Ocean maritime trade generally but does not isolate Kalinga’s role specifically.

1.5 Ancient Port Sites in Odisha

Manikapatna (Chilika Lake coast, Puri district)

  • Location: Brahmagiri taluka, Puri district, at the mouth of Satapada ghat of Chilika Lake
  • Excavations: OIMSEAS 1989-1993; Deccan College 2010
  • Two archaeological phases: Phase I (2nd century BCE to 5th/6th century CE); Phase II (9th to 19th century CE)
  • Finds: Rouletted ware, Knobbed ware, Black-slipped and Red ware, Black-and-Red ware, Grey ware, Red-slipped ware, terracotta objects (beads, figurines, ornaments), amphora fragments, Roman terracotta bullion and lamps, Puri-Kushana coins, Chola coins, Sri Lankan coins, Chinese porcelain (Yuan and Ming dynasties, 1368-1644 CE), Arabic glazed pottery, iron implements (harpoons, spearheads, sickles, fish hooks, boat nails), iron slags, bangles (terracotta, faience, glass, conch shell)
  • Significance: The only site on the east coast of India from where such variety of ceramics has been reported
  • Key scholarly references: Tripati et al. in Current Science and Scientific Reports; OIMSEAS reports

Palur/Paloura (Ganjam district, near Rushikulya River)

  • Identified by Ptolemy (2nd century CE) as an internationally important emporium
  • Ptolemy notes an “Apheterion” (point of departure) near Palur, from which ships departed for Chryse (“Golden Land” = Suvarnabhumi, Southeast Asia)
  • S. Levi identifies Dantapura of Buddhist texts and Dandagula of Pliny with Paloura of Ptolemy
  • Archaeological exploration unearthed: Chinese celadon ware, Roman rouletted pottery, amphora fragments
  • A village named Palur still exists at the Rishikulya estuary

Tamralipti/Tamluk (now in West Bengal; historically part of Kalinga’s maritime network)

  • One of the most important ancient ports on India’s east coast
  • Mentioned by Xuanzang (7th century CE) and in multiple Buddhist texts
  • Gateway port for voyages to Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, and China
  • Archaeological finds include extensive pottery assemblages

Chelitalo (identified with Manikapatna area or nearby)

  • Mentioned by Xuanzang (645 CE) as a port from which ships sailed to Simhala (Sri Lanka) and China
  • Key departure point for Bay of Bengal crossings to Suvarnabhumi

Kalingapatnam (now in Srikakulam district, Andhra Pradesh; historically part of Kalinga)

  • Named directly after Kalinga
  • Archaeological evidence of port activities
  • Located near the mouth of the Vamsadhara River

Pithunda (location debated; possibly near Chicacola/Srikakulam area)

  • Described in the Jain text Uttaradhyana Sutra as an important center at the time of Mahavira (c. 599-527 BCE)
  • Frequented by merchants from Champa (ancient Vietnam connection)
  • Conquered by Kharavela in his 11th regnal year (per Hathigumpha inscription)
  • Sylvain Levi places it south of Palur near Chicacola and Kalingapatnam

Dosarene

  • Mentioned in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (1st century CE) and by Ptolemy (2nd century CE)
  • Among the flourishing ports on the Kalinga coast

Paradip area (Mahanadi estuary)

  • Archaeological evidence of Buddhist maritime activity, including a 9th-century CE Avalokiteshvara image
  • 11th-century Goddess Oddiyani Marichi from Marichpur — worshipped by sailors and traders for safe journeys
  • A 15th-century Persian navigational tract mentions “Faradip,” indicating continued maritime importance
  • Modern Paradip Port sits at this location

1.6 Buddhist Archaeological Sites

The Diamond Triangle (Jajpur district, Odisha):

Ratnagiri:

  • Major Buddhist mahavihara (monastery), active 5th-12th century CE, peak activity 7th-10th century CE
  • Excavations revealed: monumental mahaviharas, votive stupas, sculpted Buddhas and Bodhisattvas
  • Connected to Kalingan trade networks reaching Southeast Asia
  • Ongoing excavations (2024-present) continue to unearth new artifacts
  • UNESCO Tentative World Heritage List nomination (serial nomination with Lalitgiri and Udayagiri)

Lalitgiri:

  • Among the earliest Buddhist sites in Odisha
  • Stupa, monastery, and temple remains
  • Important relic casket discovered

Udayagiri:

  • Large Buddhist monastic complex
  • Rock-cut caves (separate from the Jain Udayagiri caves near Bhubaneswar)

Connections to Southeast Asia:

  • These sites served as centers from which Buddhist missionaries traveled to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other Southeast Asian countries
  • The architectural and artistic styles show parallels with Southeast Asian Buddhist art
  • Monks and scholars from India, Sri Lanka, Nepal, China, and Southeast Asia visited these institutions
  • Odisha functioned as a Buddhist missionary center, actively sending monks outward

Key reference: “Serial Nomination of Buddhist Triangle Sites of Odisha,” UNESCO World Heritage Centre, Tentative List entry.

2. Textual and Inscriptional Evidence

2.1 Jataka Tales

The Jataka tales (Buddhist birth stories, compiled c. 4th century BCE onward) contain numerous references to maritime trade:

Baveru Jataka (#339):

  • Recounts Indian merchants exporting peacocks to Baveru (identified with Babylon/Mesopotamia)
  • Indicates trading voyages to the Persian Gulf were common practice as early as the 6th century BCE
  • Demonstrates the scale of Indian maritime enterprise

Suppuraka Jataka (#463):

  • Describes the adventures of a master mariner named Suppuraka
  • Contains references to sea voyages and maritime navigation
  • Mentions various seas and maritime dangers

Other relevant Jatakas:

  • Multiple Jatakas mention long-distance trade over land, rivers, and sea
  • References to Suvarnadvipa (Southeast Asia/Golden Island), Ratnadvipa (Sri Lanka/Gem Island), and Baveru (Babylon)
  • The Jataka corpus collectively establishes that Indian maritime trade to both west (Persian Gulf) and east (Southeast Asia) was well-known by the time of their compilation

Kalinga-Bodhi Jataka (#479):

  • Directly references the Kalinga kingdom
  • Contains narrative elements related to the region

Caveat: Jatakas are literary texts, not historical records. They reflect cultural knowledge of maritime trade but should not be taken as precise historical documentation. Their value is in establishing that maritime trade was a well-known phenomenon in Indian Buddhist culture.

2.2 Hathigumpha Inscription

Location: Hathigumpha (Elephant Cave), Udayagiri hills, near Bhubaneswar, Odisha Date: 2nd-1st century BCE (debated; Kharavela’s dates range from c. 209-170 BCE to c. 1st century BCE depending on the scholar) Language: Prakrit in Brahmi script Content: 17 lines recording the regnal achievements of King Kharavela of the Mahameghavahana dynasty

Maritime-relevant content:

  • Describes Kalinga’s military and naval strength under Kharavela
  • References to Pithunda in the 11th regnal year — Kharavela conquered this port city and “ploughed it with a plough yoked to asses” after defeating the Tramira (Tamil) confederacy
  • The inscription indicates Kalinga had a “catumga” army (fourfold: infantry, cavalry, elephants, chariots) along with naval elements
  • References to thriving trade and prosperous economy
  • Mentions interactions with the Pandya kingdom and Tamil confederacy, demonstrating Kalinga’s military reach along the coast

Scholarly caution: The inscription is heavily damaged and much of the reading is reconstructed. Different epigraphists have produced significantly different readings. Claims about specific naval expeditions or overseas trade in the inscription should be verified against specific line-by-line scholarly translations (e.g., K.P. Jayaswal and R.D. Banerji’s reading vs. later revisions).

2.3 Chinese Sources

Faxian (Fa-Hien), c. 337-422 CE:

  • Chinese Buddhist pilgrim who traveled to India c. 399-414 CE
  • His account provides information about maritime conditions and Buddhist centers
  • Traveled through the Bay of Bengal on his return to China, providing firsthand account of the maritime route

Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang), c. 602-664 CE:

  • Visited Odisha circa 638 CE
  • Refers to an important seaport town of ancient Odisha called Che-li-ta-lo (identified with Chelitalo/Charitalo)
  • Provides descriptions of the Buddhist centers and the region’s prosperity
  • Mentions sea voyages from Tamralipti and Chelitalo to Simhala (Sri Lanka) and China

Yijing (I-Tsing), 635-713 CE:

  • Chinese Buddhist monk who traveled to India via the sea route
  • In 664, Chinese Buddhist monk Huining arrived in Heling (Ho-ling, identified with the Kalingga kingdom in Java) and stayed for about three years
  • With the assistance of Jnanabhadra, a Heling monk, Huining translated numerous Hinayana Buddhist scriptures
  • Yijing’s records confirm the Kalingga kingdom was a functioning Buddhist center in Java by the 7th century

Key reference: “Kalinga and China: A Study in Ancient Relations,” Odisha Review, July 2014. Also: “The Travel Records of Chinese Pilgrims Faxian, Xuanzang, and Yijing,” Association for Asian Studies.

Material corroboration: Chinese celadon ware and Chinese coins found at coastal Odisha sites corroborate the textual references.

2.4 Tamil Texts

Kalingattuparani (12th century CE):

  • Tamil war poem by Jayamkondar, poet-laureate in the Chola court
  • Celebrates the victory of Kulottunga Chola I over the Kalinga king Anantavarman Chodaganga
  • A “parani” — a genre celebrating a king who slays a thousand elephants in battle
  • Provides vivid descriptions of battle scenes and the Chola invasion of Kalinga under commander Karunakara Tondaiman
  • Historical value: confirms the political and military interactions between Tamil kingdoms and Kalinga into the medieval period

Sangam Literature (c. 3rd century BCE - 3rd century CE):

  • Pattinappalai: Describes the Chola port of Puhar (Kaveripoompattinam) — 301 lines depicting a busy maritime city with large ships, fishermen, markets, festivals
  • Sangam texts mention important east coast seaports: Mamallapuram, Poduke (Arikamedu area), Puhar, Poraiyaru, Korkai, Kumari
  • The Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela itself mentions a “Tramira” (Tamil) confederacy, showing awareness of Tamil polities from the Kalingan side
  • Tamil literature references trade with the east coast, though specific detailed references to Kalinga ports in Sangam texts require further scholarly citation

2.5 Southeast Asian Inscriptions Mentioning Kalinga

Kalingga Kingdom, Java (6th-8th century CE):

  • A Hinduized/Indianized kingdom on the north coast of Central Java
  • Also known as Ho-ling or Heling in Chinese records
  • Tukmas inscription: From the Kalingga period; discovered on the western slope of Mount Merapi, Dusun Dakawu, Lebak village, Magelang Regency, Central Java. Written in Pallava script in Sanskrit.
  • Sojomerto inscription: Discovered in Sojomerto village, Batang Regency, Central Java. Written in Kavi script in Old Malay, estimated 7th century CE.
  • Chinese Tang dynasty records (New History of the T’ang Dynasty, Book 222): “Ka-ling is also called Djava, it is situated in the southern ocean, at the east of Sumatra and at the west of Bali.”
  • Ruled by Queen Shima (Ratu Sima), who brought Kalingga to its peak before her death c. 695 CE, after which the kingdom weakened and was eventually absorbed by Srivijaya.

Champa (Vietnam) inscriptions:

  • Vo-Chanh Rock Inscription (2nd-3rd century CE): Written in Sanskrit, refers to the first Champa kingdom under the royal family of Sri Mara, supposedly of Kalingan origin
  • Approximately 400 Champa inscriptions found, in Cham, Sanskrit, and Arabic
  • Cham script is descended from the South Indian Brahmic Grantha script
  • 4th-century CE Cho Dinh and Hon-Cut inscriptions of King Bhadravarman show similarity to Kalingan scripts

Shailendra dynasty theory:

  • R.C. Majumdar’s theory (1933) proposed that the Shailendra dynasty of the Indonesian archipelago originated from Kalinga (Odisha) in eastern India. This theory is now considered speculative by many scholars but remains part of the historiographic discourse.

2.6 Periplus of the Erythraean Sea

Date: Mid-1st century CE (most commonly accepted dating) Language: Koine Greek Content: Navigational and trading guide covering Red Sea, Horn of Africa, Persian Gulf, Arabian Sea, and Indian Ocean coasts

  • The Periplus describes Indian ports on both west and east coasts
  • References to the east coast of India include ports in the region that encompasses Kalinga
  • Dosarene is mentioned as a port/trading location on the east coast, identified with the Kalinga coastline
  • The text describes the Indian trade goods available on the east coast: fine textiles, spices, precious stones

Limitation: The Periplus is more detailed about western India (Malabar coast, Gujarat) than the east coast. Specific Kalingan port references are less detailed than those for western ports.

2.7 Ptolemy’s Geography (c. 150 CE)

Ptolemy’s Geography provides the most specific classical Western references to Kalinga ports:

  • Paloura (Palur): Described as an important emporium on the east coast
  • Mentions Apheterion near Palur — the “point of departure” for ships bound to Chryse (the “Golden Land,” i.e., Suvarnabhumi/Southeast Asia)
  • This is significant: Ptolemy identifies the Kalinga coast as the primary departure point for transoceanic voyages to Southeast Asia in the 2nd century CE
  • Other ports mentioned: Konark area, Puri area, Kosambi (Balasore district)

Scholarly reference: McCrindle, “Ancient India as Described by Ptolemy” (translation). S. Levi’s identification of Dantapura/Dandagula/Paloura.

Navigation implication: During the early centuries CE, large vessels typically did not cross the Bay of Bengal directly from Sri Lanka to Southeast Asia. Instead, they proceeded up the coast to Palura and Chelitalo, from which they crossed the open ocean to Suvarnabhumi. This makes Kalinga not just a trade origin but a critical waypoint in the broader Indian Ocean trading system.

3. Linguistic Evidence

3.1 “Keling/Kling” in Malay/Indonesian Languages

Etymology: The term derives from “Kalinga” — the ancient Indian kingdom. The terminal schwa was dropped in common Southeast Asian usage: Kalingga > Keling.

Historical usage:

  • In Indonesia, “Keling” referred to Indian people and, more broadly, to India itself
  • “Kalingga” specifically refers to the 6th-century Kalingga Kingdom of Java, which derived its name from Indian Kalinga
  • Before the English word “India” was introduced, Keling and Jambu Dwipa were the terms used in Malay and Indonesian for the Indian subcontinent
  • Benua Keling = the Indian Subcontinent
  • Earliest known occurrence in the Sejarah Melayu (Malay Annals): mentions Raja Shulan as king of Keling
  • In Cambodia, the slang term for Indian people is Kleng (Khmer: ក្លិង្គ), cognate with Malay Keling

Modern context: The term has become derogatory since the mid-20th century and is considered an ethnic slur in Malaysia and Singapore.

Significance for historical research: The fact that an entire subcontinent was named after a single regional kingdom (Kalinga) in Southeast Asian languages speaks to the overwhelming dominance of Kalingan traders in early maritime contact. This is analogous to how “Greeks” (from Graecia, one region) came to name all Hellenes.

Source: “Keling,” Wikipedia; “The word ‘keling’ in Malaysia,” International Journal of Social Science and Humanity.

3.2 Sanskrit/Prakrit Loanwords in Southeast Asian Languages

Brahmic script family spread:

  • Brahmic scripts spread to Southeast Asia at trading ports along maritime routes
  • Initial inscriptions were made in Indian languages (Sanskrit/Prakrit); later the scripts were adapted for local languages
  • By early 1st millennium CE, Sanskrit had spread Buddhist and Hindu ideas throughout Southeast Asia

Two categories of loanwords:

  • Tatsama: Unassimilated loanwords from Sanskrit (used as-is)
  • Tadbhava: Words derived through Prakrit transformation

Specific language impacts:

  • Javanese (Old Javanese/Kawi): Heavy Sanskrit vocabulary, especially in court, religious, and literary language
  • Balinese: Similar Sanskrit/Prakrit substrate as Javanese
  • Thai: Sanskrit loanwords in formal, royal, religious, and legal vocabulary
  • Khmer: Extensive Sanskrit and Pali borrowings, particularly in religious and administrative terminology
  • Cham (Vietnam): Cham script descended from South Indian Brahmic Grantha script; Sanskrit was the scholarly language of the Champa kingdom

3.3 Brahmi Script Derivatives in Southeast Asian Writing Systems

The Brahmi script of ancient India is the ancestor of virtually all Southeast Asian writing systems:

  • Thai script: Derived from Khmer, which derives from Pallava Grantha, which derives from Brahmi
  • Khmer script: Derived from Pallava Grantha (South Indian Brahmic variant)
  • Burmese script: Derived from Mon script, which derives from Pallava/Kadamba variants of Brahmi
  • Javanese/Kawi script: Derived from Pallava Grantha
  • Balinese script: Derived from Kawi/Javanese, ultimately from Brahmi
  • Cham script: Derived from Grantha, a Brahmi descendant
  • Lao script: Derived from Khmer, ultimately from Brahmi

Mechanism of spread: These scripts arrived at trading ports and were initially used for Sanskrit inscriptions. Over centuries, they were adapted for local languages. The spread pattern follows maritime trade routes precisely.

Key scholarly reference: “Brahmic scripts,” Wikipedia (with extensive bibliography); Salomon, “Indian Epigraphy” (Oxford, 1998).

3.4 Place Names in Southeast Asia with Possible Kalingan Origins

  • Kalingga (Java): Direct name transfer for the 6th-8th century kingdom
  • Kaulingam (Irian Jaya, Indonesia): Name resonates with Kalinga
  • Kalinga (Philippines, Cordillera region): The Kalinga province and people — though scholars note the local etymology derives from the Ibanag/Gaddang word “kalinga” meaning “enemy/fighter/headtaker,” the possible Indian connection remains debated
  • Kling/Keling toponyms across the Malay Peninsula
  • Champa (Vietnam): While not directly named after Kalinga, the kingdom’s founders are linked to Kalingan origin in the Vo-Chanh inscription tradition

Scholarly caveat: Place-name etymology is notoriously unreliable as historical evidence. Similar-sounding names can arise independently in different languages. The Philippine Kalinga, for instance, likely has an indigenous rather than Indian origin.

4. Trade Goods

4.1 Kalinga Exports

Textiles:

  • Kalingam cloth: A high-quality blue cotton cloth; the term “Kalingam” itself became a trade name for fine Indian cotton in Southeast Asia
  • Fine muslins and other cotton textiles
  • Silk fabrics (likely re-exported from other Indian regions)

Minerals and stones:

  • Diamonds and precious stones (Odisha has historically been a source)
  • Semi-precious stones (carnelian, agate — though Gujarat was the primary bead production center)

Animal products:

  • Elephants (major export to Sri Lanka; Kalinga was famous for its war elephants)
  • Ivory

Agricultural products:

  • Long pepper, cinnamon, cardamom (spices)
  • Rice
  • Betel nuts
  • Forest goods

Manufactured goods:

  • Iron implements (Odisha was a significant iron-producing region)
  • Ceramics/pottery (including rouletted ware as part of broader trade networks)
  • Paper

Religious and cultural items:

  • Buddhist texts and religious artifacts
  • Fine textiles used in religious contexts

4.2 Kalinga Imports

From Southeast Asia:

  • Gold (Suvarnabhumi = “Golden Land”)
  • Tin (from Malay Peninsula)
  • Camphor
  • Sandalwood
  • Aromatic woods
  • Cloves
  • Other spices (for re-export westward)

From Sri Lanka:

  • Pearls
  • Silver
  • Gems

From China:

  • Silk
  • Porcelain (confirmed by Yuan and Ming dynasty porcelain at Manikapatna)
  • Gold

From the Roman/Mediterranean world:

  • Wine (in amphorae — amphora fragments found at Manikapatna and Palur)
  • Glassware
  • Gold coins (Roman bullion terracotta found at Manikapatna)
  • Lamps

4.3 The Monsoon Trading Cycle

The monsoon system was the engine of Indian Ocean trade, creating predictable seasonal sailing windows:

Outbound voyage (India to Southeast Asia):

  • Northeast monsoon: October-December (sometimes extending to March)
  • Wind direction: Blows from northeast to southwest
  • Odia Sadhabas departed on Kartika Purnima (the full moon of the month of Kartika, October-November) to catch the northeast trade winds
  • This timing is memorialized in the annual Bali Jatra festival at Cuttack

Return voyage (Southeast Asia to India):

  • Southwest monsoon: April-June (sometimes extending to October)
  • Wind direction: Blows from southwest to northeast
  • Ships returned laden with Southeast Asian goods

Navigation details:

  • Before direct open-ocean crossing became common, ships hugged the coast northward from Sri Lanka to Palur/Chelitalo on the Kalinga coast, then crossed the Bay of Bengal to Suvarnabhumi
  • Ptolemy’s mention of Apheterion (“point of departure”) near Palur confirms this was the recognized launching point for the transoceanic crossing
  • The round trip typically took one full year, governed by the monsoon reversal

Key scholarly reference: Tripati, “Monsoon wind and maritime trade: A case study of historical evidence from Orissa, India,” National Institute of Oceanography, Goa. Published in NIO digital repository.

5. Port Infrastructure

5.1 Manikapatna Excavations — Detailed Findings

Phase I (2nd century BCE - 5th/6th century CE):

  • Rouletted ware (key marker of early historic trade)
  • Knobbed ware
  • Black-and-Red ware
  • Grey ware
  • Amphora fragments (Roman/Mediterranean trade marker)
  • Roman terracotta bullion and lamps
  • Kharosthi inscription on potsherd
  • Puri-Kushana coins (1st century CE)
  • Inscribed pendant “Sadabhu Tisha” (Mauryan period)
  • Iron implements: harpoons, spearheads, sickles, fish hooks, boat nails
  • Iron slags (indicating local metalworking)
  • Beads: terracotta, agate, soft stone, bone
  • Bangles: terracotta, faience, glass, conch shell

Phase II (9th - 19th century CE):

  • Rajaraja Chola coins (985-1016 CE)
  • Sahassamalla coins (Polonnaruva period, Sri Lanka)
  • Chinese coins (14th century CE)
  • Chinese celadon ware
  • Chinese porcelain (Yuan and Ming dynasties, 1368-1644 CE)
  • Arabic glazed pottery
  • Indo-Arabian stone anchor (medieval; geochemically sourced to Saurashtra, Gujarat)

Significance: Manikapatna is the only site on India’s east coast that has yielded such a diverse range of ceramics from different civilizations and periods, confirming it was a truly cosmopolitan trading port.

5.2 Paradip Area Ancient Port Evidence

  • 9th-century CE Avalokiteshvara image — Buddhist maritime deity worship
  • 11th-century Goddess Oddiyani Marichi of Marichpur — worshipped by sailors for safe voyages
  • 15th-century Persian navigational tract mentions “Faradip”
  • Located at the Mahanadi estuary, providing natural harbor conditions and river access to the interior

5.3 Comparison with Other Indian Ocean Trading Ports

Arikamedu (Tamil Nadu):

  • Excavated by Wheeler (1945), Casal (1947-50), Begley (1989-92)
  • Major rouletted ware site; Roman trade marker site
  • More extensively excavated and published than any Odishan port
  • Demonstrates the same kind of Roman-Indian-Southeast Asian trade network

Mantai (Sri Lanka):

  • Major Indian Ocean entrepot
  • Connected to both western (Rome/Arabia) and eastern (Southeast Asia/China) trade

Oc Eo (Vietnam):

  • Major port of the Funan kingdom
  • Roman coins, Indian trade goods found
  • Demonstrates the eastern terminus of the Indian Ocean trade network

Perspective: Odishan ports were part of the same Indian Ocean trading system as these better-known sites, but they have received significantly less archaeological attention. The Manikapatna excavations of 1989-1993 remain the most substantial work, and much of the Kalinga coast remains unexcavated. This is both a gap in knowledge and an opportunity.

6. The Bali Jatra (Boita Bandana) Living Tradition

What it is: An annual festival held at Cuttack, Odisha, beginning on Kartika Purnima. One of Asia’s largest open trade fairs, lasting 7+ days.

Historical connection:

  • Commemorates the day when ancient Sadhabas (Odia mariners) set sail to distant lands: Bali, Java (Yawadvipa), Sumatra, Borneo, Sri Lanka
  • Sailed on large vessels called Boitas
  • Used ajhala (large fabric sails) to harness monsoon winds
  • Departed with the northeast monsoon on Kartika Purnima

Modern ritual: People float miniature boats made of banana stems, paper, or cork in rivers and ponds, symbolizing the Sadhabas’ voyages. The ritual is called Boita Bandana (tying/launching of boats).

Evidentiary value: The persistence of this festival for centuries (and likely millennia) constitutes strong cultural memory evidence of a historical maritime tradition. It is not proof of specific voyages but demonstrates that maritime trade was central enough to Odia identity to be preserved in annual ritual observance.

7. The Champa-Kalinga Connection (Vietnam)

This deserves separate attention as one of the most specific and well-documented links:

Evidence chain:

  1. Vo-Chanh Rock Inscription (2nd-3rd century CE): Sanskrit inscription identifying the Champa royal family of Sri Mara as of Kalingan origin
  2. Script similarity: 4th-century CE Cho Dinh and Hon-Cut inscriptions of King Bhadravarman show script resemblance to Kalingan scripts
  3. Architectural parallels: Champa temple architecture shows influences from Dravidian, Pala Bengal, and Kalingan art forms
  4. Sanskrit as language: Champa adopted Sanskrit as its scholarly language and Hinduism (especially Shaivism) as state religion
  5. Approximately 400 Champa inscriptions found in Cham, Sanskrit, and Arabic across the four socio-cultural centers: Vijaya (Binh Dinh), Kauthara (Nha Trang), Panduranga (Phan Rang), Indrapura (Dong Duong), Amaravati (Quang Nam)
  6. Migration theory: Kula people (Kiu-liens) may have migrated from Kalinga to Burma and lower Indo-China via land or sea sometime in the 1st century CE or earlier

Key references:

  • Indian Council of World Affairs, “India-Vietnam Civilisational Linkages: Remembering Kalinga and Cham of the Past and the Present”
  • Majumdar, R.C., “Ancient Indian Colonies in the Far East” (1927/1933)

8. Key Scholarly References and Sources

Primary Archaeological Reports

  • OIMSEAS excavation reports, Manikapatna, 1989-1993
  • Smith, M.L. and Mohanty, R., “Archaeology at Sisupalgarh: The Chronology of an Early Historic Urban Centre in Eastern India” (UCLA/Deccan College)
  • Smith, M.L. and Mohanty, R., “Excavations at Sisupalgarh 2005” and “Excavations at Sisupalgarh 2008” (Academia.edu)
  • Tripati, S. et al., “Indo-Arabian Stone Anchor of Manikapatna, Odisha, East Coast of India,” Current Science
  • Tripati, S. et al., “Geochemical provenance of an Indo-Arabian stone anchor from Manikapatna,” Scientific Reports (Nature), 2022

Key Scholarly Works

  • Begley, V., “Rouletted Ware at Arikamedu: A New Approach”
  • Bellina, B., “Beads, social change and interaction between India and South-east Asia”
  • Carter, A.K., “Geologic provenience analysis of agate and carnelian beads,” Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 2016
  • Calo, A. et al., “Sembiran and Pacung on the north coast of Bali: a strategic crossroads for early trans-Asiatic exchange,” Antiquity, Cambridge University Press
  • Ford, L.A. et al., “Revisiting Indian Rouletted Ware and the impact of Indian Ocean trade in Early Historic south Asia,” Antiquity
  • Majumdar, R.C., “Ancient Indian Colonies in the Far East” (1927/1933)
  • McCrindle, J.W., “Ancient India as Described by Ptolemy” (translation)
  • Patra, B., “Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa”
  • Salomon, R., “Indian Epigraphy” (Oxford, 1998)
  • Schenk, H., “Indian Rouletted Ware and Associated Ceramics in the Early Historic Cultural Exchange Networks of the Indian Ocean”
  • Tripati, S., “Monsoon wind and maritime trade: A case study of historical evidence from Orissa, India,” NIO, Goa

Classical Texts

  • Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (mid-1st century CE), Schoff translation (1912)
  • Ptolemy, Geography (c. 150 CE), McCrindle translation
  • Jataka tales (multiple translations available)
  • Hathigumpha inscription (various epigraphic readings: Jayaswal & Banerji, later revisions)
  • Xuanzang, Si-Yu-Ki (Records of the Western Regions), Beal and Watters translations
  • Yijing (I-Tsing), “A Record of the Buddhist Religion as Practised in India and the Malay Archipelago,” Takakusu translation (1896)

Government and Institutional Publications

  • Odisha Review, various issues (magazines.odisha.gov.in)
  • “Ports in Ancient Odisha: Historical Perspective,” Odisha Review, November 2014
  • “Maritime Trade of Ancient Kalinga,” Odisha Review, November 2011
  • “Kalinga and China: A Study in Ancient Relations,” Odisha Review, July 2014
  • Indian Council of World Affairs publications on India-Vietnam civilizational linkages
  • UNESCO World Heritage Centre, Tentative List: “Serial Nomination of Buddhist Triangle Sites of Odisha”

9. What Remains Uncertain or Under-Researched

  1. Kalingan vs. broader “east coast Indian” trade: Much of the archaeological evidence (rouletted ware, beads) could originate from Tamil Nadu, Bengal, or other east coast regions. Isolating specifically Kalingan contributions requires more excavation and provenance analysis.

  2. Shailendra dynasty origins: Majumdar’s theory of Kalingan origin for the Shailendras remains contested. Other scholars propose different origins.

  3. Scale of trade: We know trade existed; quantifying its scale relative to other Indian Ocean routes remains difficult.

  4. Ship construction: Almost no Kalingan vessel remains have been found. Our knowledge of Boita construction comes from later literary descriptions and the Bali Jatra tradition, not from archaeological ship finds.

  5. Under-excavated ports: Much of the Kalinga coastline remains archaeologically unexplored. Systematic survey and excavation of potential port sites could dramatically expand the evidence base.

  6. Chronological precision: Many of the dates for Kalingan maritime trade rely on ceramic typology and literary references rather than absolute dating methods. More C14 and other scientific dating would strengthen the chronological framework.

  7. The “Indianization” debate: Modern scholarship has moved away from the older model of one-directional Indian colonization of Southeast Asia toward models of bilateral exchange and local agency. The evidence should be read in this light — Southeast Asian societies were active participants in trade, not passive recipients of Indian culture.

Cited in

The narrative series that build on this research.